The Marriage Market

Georgianna and the Marriage Market. "At nineteen and twenty and twenty-one she had thought that all the world was before her. With her commanding figure, regular long features, and bright complexion, she had regarded herself as one of the beauties of the day, and had considered herself entitled to demand wealth and a coronet. At twenty-two, twenty-three and twenty-four any young peer, or peer's eldest son, with a house in town and in the country, might have sufficed. Twenty-five and six had been the years for baronets and squires; and even a leading fashionable lawyer or two had been marked by her as sufficient since that time. But now she was aware that hitherto she had always fixed her price a little too high. On three things she was still determined--that she would not be poor, that she would not be banished from London, and that she would not be an old maid." (Trollope 1951:94).

Four stages for entering into marriage (after Henry 1972):

1. Candidacy for marriage--the category of marriageable people includes at any moment all the persons who could marry whether they consciously wish to find a mate or not. Henry (1972) states, "In practice, exposure to marriage is not usually discernible; married people would be unable to say when they became aware that they would marry if the opportunity arose. However, many young people from the time they are nubile casually think of marriage as an event that will take place sometime in the future; but, ten years later, if they are not married, they are highly concerned about whether they will find a wife or a husband."

2. Joining marriage circles--groups or cliques in which young men and women have a chance to meet and therefore eventually get married.

3. Formation of couples--takes place in the circle according to rules that vary widely from one model to another. Chance may be subject to certain exclusions on account of, for example: i)religion; ii)height; iii)race.

4. Marriage--results are acknowledged and legalized.

How to Pick Up Girls by Eric Weber (2 million copies sold and is still in print). Line used from book by journalist (Jason) for ABC News at bar in LA. Jason (approaching a woman sitting at the bar with two girlfriends): Don't tell me a beautiful girl like you doesn't have a date tonight. Woman (skeptical look on face): Are you kidding? Jason (ad-libbing): No. Woman: that's not your best line, is it? Jason: (Groping desperately): What makes you think that was a line? Woman: Please (Turns back to her friends in disgust). NY Times 10/1/95.

"One might conceive of the process of pairing as a sequence of hurdles: entering the marriage market, identifying (and perhaps rejecting) one (or more potential spouses, and marrying. If there is a relatively long period between one hurdle and another, all of those who are in the race may not cross the finish line before they reach an age when they are effectively disqualified". (Watkins 1984).

Marriage Squeeze--refers to the ratio of marriageable males to marriageable females. The marriage squeeze refers to the ratio of eligible males to eligible females. Although the primary sex ratio is close to 1:1 (male:female), in many societies men prefer younger women and women prefer older men. Thus when population growth rate is changing, the number of older men to younger women will differ, depending upon whether the population is increasing or decreasing. Consider the following hypothetical population where the number in the birth cohorts changes every five years:

Time	Males	Females	Ratioa
0	100,000	100,000	1:2
5	200,000	200,000	1:2
10	400,000	400,000	2:1
15	200,000	200,000	2:1
20	100,000	100,000	--

^anumber of males to females 5 years younger

Note the following: i)equal numbers of each sex born each year; ii)the ratio favors males on the growth phase but favors females on the decline phase. Clearly marriage is a male "buyers" market during the growth phase and a female "buyers" market during the decline phase.

Family Life Cycle

The concept of the family life cycle brings together and synthesizes several central topics of demography: i)nuptiality; ii)fertility; iii)mortality.

The basic model divides the family life cycle into six phases as given in the table below.

Problems with this idealized cycle, especially in measurement:

1. Ambiguity of first marriage. Is it first marriage of 'marker' individual or partner?

2. If marriage remains childless then cycle collapses to two phases instead of six

3. If have one child then first child is also last child so cycle has four phases;

4. Often time when children leave home (also called launching or passage) is ambiguous

5. Should children be counted per woman or per marriage?

The general problem is that there are a large number of variations of family type and sequence that the 'ideal' only covers a fraction of the types. However, this model is extremely useful as a frame of reference and starting point. In general the classical concept of the family life cycle applies to stable first marriages of the nuclear family type.

Fig. 1. Kennedy family life cycle--number of children at home by year.

Example: Consider the family life cycle of the Joseph and Rose Kennedy Family. The information needed to complete the analysis is as follows:

Parents (married in 1914):

Joseph: 1888-1969
Rose: 1890-1995

Children:

#1. Joseph Jr. 1915-1944
#2. John F. 1917-1963 m. 1953 to Jackie b. 1929-
#3. Rosemary: 1918
#4. Kathleen 1920-1948 m 1944 to William Cavendish
#5. Eunice 1921- m 1953 to Sargent Shriver b. 1915
#6. Patricia: 1924- m. 1954. Peter Lawford 1923-1984
#7. Robert 1925-1968 m. 1950 to Ethel b. 1928
#8. Jean Ann: 1928- m. 1956 to Stephen Smith b. 1927
#9. Edward: 1932- m. 1958 to Joan 1936.

The Myth of Birth Order. There are people who maintain that just from knowing whether someone is a first-, middle- or last-born child, they predict that individual's personality and intelligence. Is the oldest the smartest? Is the middle child the peacemaker? Those are popular beliefs, but most researchers say it's just bunk. They believe that the lifelong impact of birth order is just one more example of a holdover in our psychological theorizing--that your personality is fixed by the time you're 6. That assumption is simply incorrect. (from Alfie Kohn, Los Angeles Times, March 26, 1990; also Judith Blake, Family Size and Achievement).

1. Only one year prior to first born (Formation Phase)
2. Took 17 years from first to last born. This was Rose's reproductive period
3. Only one year in which all of the children were in the nest; Completed Extension Phase
4. Was 17 years from the first born leaves (Joe) to last born leaves (Edward). Thus the Extension Phase duration equals the Contraction Phase if none of the children die
5. Was 19 years from the time the last child left the nest to the first spouse dies; this is like 'retirement' phase
6. Rose spent 26 years in widowhood for Rose
7. The family life span was 81 years.

MARITAL DISSOLUTION

Three ways in which the legal contract of marriage may be dissolved:

1. Divorce--a final legal dissolution of a marriage; the separation of husband and wife by a judicial decree which confers on the parties the right to civil and/or religious remarriage.

2. Annulment--makes the contract void from inception. Differs conceptually from a divorce in that a divorce terminates a legal status, whereas an annulment establishes that a marital status never existed.

3. Widowed--upon the death of one of the spouses, the surviving spouse experiences the event of widowhood.

1. Legal Separation--begin living apart
2. File For Divorce--formally file papers at courthouse
3. Mediation--court-appointed mediator (usually psychologist) to arrange for childcare/support; interim arrangement
4. Custody Trial/Settlement--legal and physical custody of children; involves child support
5. Property Trial/Settlement--split property 50:50; typically assets acquired after married; includes spousal support (alimony)
6. Divorce finalized--in California cannot be final until at least 6 months after original filing date

Legal custody--responsible for child's welfare, education, etc.

Physical custody--children live with physical custodian

Types of Custody:

• Sole--sole custody to one parent with visitation rights to the non-custodial parent. The ultimate control and legal responsibility rests with the custodial parent.
• Divided--allows each parent to have the child for a part of the year. When parents live far apart often courts give divided custody. However, courts generally disapprove of divided custody because they believe that it creates confusion for the child as to who has authority which leads to disciplinary problems. No clear line between sole custody with liberal visitation rights and divided custody.
• Split--when one parent gets one or more of the children and another gets the remaining. Courts view is that the family unit is struck a vital blow when parents divorce; it is struck an additional one when children are separated from each other.
• Joint--goes beyond divided custody. Both parents retain legal responsibility and authority for the care and control of the child much as in an intact family.

While in divided custody only the parent with physical custody retains these incidents. Both parties have equal voice in the children's education, upbringing and general welfare. Some argue that the distinguishing trait is that parents are allowed to interact with his or her child in everyday situations rather than "visit" them.

Marriage: A Demographic Perspective (from Waite 1995)

In a recent paper published in the journal Demography, Waite (1995) summarized the health and longevity benefits of marriage:

Fig. 1. Probablity of survival to age 65 by marital status and sex.

1. Married individuals have the highest probablity of survival.

2. Widowed females have a much better chance of survival than divorced women or those never married.

3. However, all men who are not currently married face higher risks of dying than married men.

4. Marriage apparently reduces the risk of dying and lengthens life by: i)reducing risky and unhealthy behaviors (drinking; smoking); ii)increases material well being--income, assets, wealth. These are used to purchase better medical care, better diet, and safer surroundings; iii)provides individuals with a network of help and support.

Tangled Limbs of an Extended Family Tree
The links between a couple, Annie P. and Lee S., and their former and current families
(NY Times March 19, 1995)

Figure 1. Extended family of Annie P. and Lee S.

The Complexity of Extended Families

First Annie and Ivan married. They had two children. They divorced. Later, Barry moved into Annie's house. Annie loved him. Her children did not. Three years passed, and he was gone. Two years later, Annie moved her children into Lee's house. Annie loved him. Her children did not. For nearly three years, Annie and Lee and her children have circled one another warily, trying to decide whether this newest family could endure. Annie's children, like countless across the country, are part of an increasingly common American family--one that is formed, shattered, reformed and shattered again in the wake of repeated divorces and breakups. These children struggle to navigate a bewildering succession of stepparents, stepsiblings and live-in relationships that have no formal name (from New York Times 3/19/95).

From Annie's perspective, note the following:

1. She first married Ivan who had one daughter from a previous marriage.
2. She and Ivan had two children so this formed a "blended" family consisting on two biological children (Annie's) and a stepdaughter. This step daughter to her was a half-sister to the other two children.
3. She and Ivan then divorced
4. Annie moved in with Barry L. who had two children from his previous marriage. At this point Annie was connected with five children: i)her two biological children by Ivan; ii)one stepchild from Ivan's earlier marriage; and iii)two new stepchildren from Barry's first marriage. Therefore her two children had to adjust to two new stepchildren (and they to them), both of whom were likely shuttled to their mothers; and they themselves were likely shuttled to their father's place (Ivan).
5. Annie now move in with Lee who has three biological children from his first wife. He divorced and remarried a woman with two children. He divorces again and brings his three biological children to live with Annie (his third potential wife).
6. Their children (Annie and Lee) now must adjust to yet a third parent (biological and 1st and 2nd stepparents) and a third set of stepsiblings.

SUGGESTED READING

Goodman, L. A., W. Keyfitz, and T. W. Pullum. 1974. Family formation and the frequency of various kinship relations. Theor. Pop. Biol. 5:1-27.

Krishnamoorthy, S. 1979. Family formation and the life cycle. Demography 16:121-129.

Queen, S. A. R. W. Habenstein and J. S. Quadagno. The Family in Various Cultures. Harper & Row, Publishers, New York.

Retherford, R. D. and W. H. Sewell. 1988. Intelligence and family size reconsidered. Social Biology35:1-40.

Ryder, N. B. 1978. Models of family demography. In: Population Bulletin of the United Nations. No. 9. pp43-46.

Watkins, S. C. 1984. Spinsters. J. Family History 9:310-325.

Waite, L. J. 1995. Does marriage matter? Demography 32:483-507.

Yi, Zeng. 1988. Changing demographic characteristics and the family status of Chinese women. Population Studies 42:183-203.

KINSHIP

INTRODUCTION

Kinship is really an extension of racial, genetical or ethnic groupings in that all of these can be further divided into relatedness categories such as tribes, clans or families. Individuals within family groups are typically organized around a central person (designate this person as 'Ego') in one-of-two ways:

• Common progenitor (e.g. great grandfather)
• Descendent (e.g. son, grandson)

  The focus in both cases is on a person's genealogy (direct lineage for either descendents or progenitors) and not on the more complete case of their consanguinity (kinship). That is, everyone is part of:

• Nuclear family--parents & children
• Stem family--all direct ancestors & descendents
• Extended family--nuclear and stem family plus assortment of other kin such as uncles/aunts, nephews/nieces & cousins.

Kin are divided into two general categories:

1. Lineal kin which are your direct descendents (children, grandchildren, etc.) and progenitors (parents, grandparents, etc.)

2. Collaterals which are all other kin. The collaterals can, in turn, be divided into two types:

   Colineal--aunts/uncles, sibs, nephews/nieces. These are the siblings of lineal kin

   Ablineal--cousins. These are the siblings of the colineal kin.

Cross-classification of Cousinships

• by degree (e.g. first, second, etc.)
• by generation removed (e.g. once removed, twice removed, etc.).
  

• the parents of your great grandmother or great grandfather are your second great grandparents and you are a second great grandson to them
• the children of your grandnephews and grandnieces are your great grandnephews or great grandnieces and you are great grand uncles to them
• your father's brother or sister is your uncle or aunt and you are a nephew or niece to them
• the children of your first cousins are first cousins once removed and you are the same to them
• the children of your second cousins are your second cousins once removed and you are the same to them
• the grandchildren of your second cousins are your second cousins twice removed and you are the same to them
• your grandfather's brothers are your great uncles, their children are your first cousins once removed and also your father's first cousins, and their grandchildren are your second cousins (or your second cousins are the children of your parent's first cousins).

An important aspect in understanding all kinship relations involves the biological pathways by which someone came to be your kin. This is especially true for all collaterals but is also important for lineal kin. For example, you have eight great grandparents representing four surnames (traditionally), three of which are not your own. That is, two of these three are associated with your mother's side and one of these three is associated with your father's mother's side. Thus in identifying grandparents it is important to keep the paths straight so that collaterals can be organized and traced accordingly. For example, your first cousins may be derived from either your father's side or your mother's side and your second cousins may be derived from four sources. These are the siblings of either: i)your paternal grandfather; ii)your paternal grandmother; iii)your maternal grandfather; and iv)your maternal grandmother.

Genealogy and Family History

• Genealogy--history of descent of person or family from ancestor
• Ancestry--evokes an image of a family tree branching further as it ascends
• Lineage--stresses descent in line; single ancestor; Two people may have identical lineage but different ancestry
• Pedigree--collective term referring to all consanguine relations
• Vertical genealogy--concerned with lineal and colineal kin (e.g. grandparents; great aunts)
• Horizontal genealogy--concerned with ablineal kin (e.g. second cousins once removed)

Note the various levels of information for genealogical research in Table 1. First level includes data sheets such as family group sheets. Second level are data summary sheets such as ancestral and lineage charts. Third level are personal and family biographies. One of the most useful references for researching your own family tree is the book by Eakle and Cerny (1984). In general, books on genealogy provide techniques and approaches for finding your remote kin. However they seldom provide broad overviews of kinship and pedigree relations. (Eakle, Arlene and Johni Cerny. 1984. The Source. A Guidebook of American Genealogy. Ancestry Publications Company, Salt Lake City, Utah).

Pedigree Collapse

If you kept multiplying your progenitors by two every generation--doubling your parents, their parents and so on--when you reached the time of Charlemagne (ca. 800 AD) you would have between four and seventeen billion of them. But obviously there were nowhere near that many people alive then or at any time. What prevents the theoretical population implosion from taking place is called "pedigree collapse". This is caused by cousins marrying cousins--the intentional mating between close cousins and random mating between distant ones who don't even know they are related. Each time cousins marry, duplication occurs in their descendant's pedigrees, because cousins already occupy a slot there. The farther back one traces any person's genealogy the greater the rate of duplication grows, until finally, when there is more cousin intermarriage than input from new people, the shape of one's pedigree stops expanding and begins to narrow. Each person's complete family tree, in other words, is shaped like a diamond. In the beginning it expands upward from him in an inverted triangle. At some point, hundreds of years back, the rate of expansion peaks, the base of the inverted triangle is reached and, overwhelmed by "collapse," the pedigree starts to narrow again, eventually coming to a point at a theoretical first couple--Adam and Eve. (from The Mountain of Names, Alex Shoumatoff, 1985).

Hereditary Titles

• Royalty--king and queen in state
• King--reigning member of royal family
• Prince of Wales--title conferred on oldest son and heir apparent of a British king or queen.
• Nobility--titled persons in a state
• Aristocracy--rule by the best; government by a relatively small privileged class
• House of Lords--upper branch of the legislature (parliament) of Great Britain made up of the nobility and high ranking clergy (Archbishops and Bishops); analog in U.S. is Senate
• House of Commons--lower branch of the legislature of Great Britain; analog in U.S. is House of Representatives
• British nobility--hereditary titles are the classical five degrees of British hereditary peerage (the body of peers; Burke's Peerage):

Higher Nobility

• Duke--a nobleman of the highest hereditary rank after that of prince
• Marquis (mar'kwis)--a nobleman of hereditary rank next above that of earl or count and below duke
• Earl--a nobleman ranking below a marquis and above a count. The rank corresponds to that of the count on the continent of Europe. Thus the wife of an earl is still called countess.

Was Queen Victoria a bastard? In a new book--Queen Victoria's Gene--two British brothers suggest that Victoria (1837-1901) was illegitimate; the product of an elicit liaison. The key to the mystery is in the royal DNA. Why, ask coauthors Malcolm Potts, an embryologist at Berkeley and William Potts, a zoologist at Lancaster University in Britain, did the interlocking European ruling families' history of hemophilia begin with Victoria? Previous genealogical work rules out any of Victoria's forebearers. That leaves only two possibilities: a spontaneous mutation (1-in-50,000 chance) or Victoria was the daughter of someone other than the Duke of Kent. Circumstances tend to argue for an unknown lover. The implications of the Duchess's colossal unlucky choice of a hemophiliac lover are breathtaking. Consider the Boshevik revolution. Czar Nicholas II's wife, Alexandra, was Victoria's granddaughter, and she transmitted hemophilia to their heir. The little boy's disease drove Alexandra to Rasputin, the diabolical monk who could calm the boy--but whose dark power at court weakened the family at the worst possible time. No hemophilia, no Rasputin. So no Rasputin, no revolution? (Newsweek, July 24, 1995)

Lower Nobility

• Viscout (vi'kount)--a nobleman next below an earl or count and next above a baron.
• Baron--a member of the lowest grade of the peerage; one of the hereditary peerage entitled to be addressed "Lord" and to sit in the House of Lords.

Non-Hereditary

• Knight--ranks next below a baronet. He has the title Sir prefixed to his name. The dignity is not hereditary.
• Nobleman--one of the nobility; a peer
• Landed Gentry--a landowner of education and good breeding; a person between the nobility and the yeomanry.
• Gentleman--a man wellborn; sometimes anyone above the social condition of a yeoman (= a common man of the first or most respectable class).

Surname Formation. (Taken from Roberts and Roberts, 1983)

In England, following the requirement of Edward II, surnames were widespread by the 14th century though with some localities and families slower to assume them. In the mid-16th century records of Northumberland, one still finds individuals marrying and dying without surnames, though certainly by 1600 they were universal even in these outlying areas. In the northern isles, however, Scandinavian naming traditions remained quite late, and indeed in Shetland right up to the beginning of the 19th century one finds little surname transmission but instead the patronymic system, in which a man's second name was his father's first name with the suffix "son" and a woman's second name would be that of her father's first name with the suffix "daughter," sometimes abbreviated to "daugh." Indeed, the same woman, say the daughter of Peter Johnson, may appear in the records with any of four names, (e.g. Elizabeth Petersdaughter, Elizabeth Paterson, Elizabeth Johnson, or her married name Elizabeth Sanderson). An eldest son tended to be given the first name of his grandfather, but otherwise naming depended on the preference of the parents, so the system was in essence random. The North American Indian regards his name, not as a mere label, but as a distinct part of his personality. Traditionally named for personal qualities, natural forces, animals, plants, brave deeds, memorable events or dreams. However, they have no surname thus there is no clue to descent.

In a society where the occupation or trade passes traditionally from father to son, inheritance of nicknames was natural. In the Middle Ages feudalism regulated succession by law so the sons, grandsons and great grandsons of a person who made bread were Bakers by name as well as bakers by trade. Pulgram (1954) recounts the story of a census taker in the remote Alpine districts of Austria in 1816 before surnames were widespread in the country. Very few of the people living in the remote huts knew anything about family names. People use a peculiar form to indicate their descent and membership in a family. Take Kathi-Hani-Waba-Mirz-Margareth. There Kathi is the great-great-grandmother of Margareth. Thus the full name is a chain of ancestral first names.

The keeping of more accurate civil records necessitated better distinction and identification of persons, and in consequence, surnames were invented and assumed on a large scale in Britain. Such names were in part derived from:

Numbers of Surnames. The Japanese use as surnames roughly seventy-one thousand combinations of characters; and have around 107,000 distinct surnames. Some, like Sato and Suzuki, are borne by millions of people. Others occur only in remote villages. The Chinese who currently number over one billion have only about 500 surnames and the Koreans about 250 (20, 15 and 8% of Koreans are named Kim, Lee and Park respectively) . Some European countries have, if variant spellings are counted, about 10,000 surnames.

• Personal names of sires and ancestors (e.g. Johnson, Smithson, Watson, Fitzhugh, MacDonald, O'Keefe)
• Locality or place of residence (e.g. Atwell, Bradford, Brook, Hill, Lindley, Wood)
• Occupations (e.g. Baker, Brewer, Carpenter, Chandler, Clark, Cooper, Smith, Taylor)
• Personal peculiarities or nicknames (e.g. Armstrong, Birdseye, Broadhead, Doolittle, Gray, Lightfoot, Longfellow, Short)
• Names of natural objects (e.g. Berry, Birch, Buck, Cherry, Fish, Fox, Oakes, Onions, Stone)

Extinction of Surnames

Suppose 25% of fathers are replaced by no sons, 50% by one son and 25% by two sons. The size of the population and thus the number of males, is fixed over time. However, the number of patrilines (names) becomes smaller with each generation since some of the fraternities have no sons in the next generation. After 5 generations only 40% of all names have survived and after 35 generations less than 10% of all names have survived (Ryder, 1987).

Genetics of Personality

A well-replicated finding in behavior genetics, and its implications are straightforward--the similarity we see in personality between biological relatives is almost entirely genetic in origin. If we wish to study environmental influences on personality development in families, we must look for influences that operate differentially among children in the same family. Current thinking holds that each individual picks and chooses from a range of stimuli and events largely on the basis of his or her genotype and creates a unique set of experiences; people help to create their own environments. The five main determinants of personality (from Bouchard 1994):

1. Extraversion (introversion-extraversion, dominance, positive emotionality):
   • Outgoing, decisive, persuasive, and enjoys leadership roles
     or
   • Is retiring, reserved, withdrawn, and does not enjoy being the center of attention
2. Neuroticism (anxiety, emotional stability, stress reactivity, negative emotionality):
   • Is emotionally unstable, nervous, irritable, and prone to worry.
     or
   • Quickly gets over upsetting experiences, stable, and not prone to worries and fears
3. Conscientiousness (conformity, dependability, authoritarianism, constraint):
   • Is planful, organized, responsible, practical, and dependable
     or
   • Is impulsive, careless, irresponsible, and cannot be depended upon
4. Agreeableness (likability, friendliness, pleasant, aggression):
   • Is sympathetic, warm, kind, good-natured, and will not take advantage of others
     or
   • Is quarrelsome, aggressive, unfriendly, cold, and vindictive
5. Openness (culture, intellect, sophistication, imagination, absorption):
   • Is insightful, curious, original, imaginative, and open to novel experiences and stimuli
     or
   • Has narrow interests, is unintelligent, unreflective, and shallow

Table 1. Kinship relative to Ego among seven generations. Note that the children of the relatives in one entry are the entry one generation down and one collateral step to the right. For example, your grandfather's children (excepting your parents) are the entry to the lower right of grandfathers/grandmothers which are your uncles/aunts. And their children are your first cousins which is the entry to the lower right of uncles/aunts. Collaterals 2, 3 and 4 represent first, second and third cousins, respectively for the lineal kin in the same generation. For example, the second cousins twice removed in generation -2 for Ego are the second cousins of Ego's grandfather/grandmother.

		COLLATERALS (Colineal and Ablineal)
GENERATION	LINEAL	0	1	2	3
-3	Great	Great	1st Cousins	2nd Cousins	3rd Cousins
	Grandfathers/	Grand Uncles/	Thrice	Thrice	Thrice
	Grandmothers	Aunts	Removed	Removed	Removed
-2	Grandfathers/	Great	1st Cousins	2nd Cousins	3rd Cousins
	Grandmothers	Uncles/	Twice	Twice	Twice
		Aunts	Removed	Removed	Removed
-1	Father/	Uncles/	1st Cousins	2nd Cousins	3rd Cousins
	Mother	Aunts	Once	Once	Once
			Removed	Removed	Removed
0	Ego	Brothers/	1st	2nd	3rd
		Sisters	Cousins	Cousins	Cousins
1	Sons/		Nephews/	1st Cousins	2nd Cousins
	Daughters	--	Nieces	Once	Once
				Removed	Removed
2	Grandsons/			Grand Nephews/	1st Cousins
	Granddaughters	--	--	Nieces	Twice
					Removed
3	Great Grandsons/				Great Grand
	Granddaughters	--	--	--	Nephews/
					Nieces

Table 2. Consanguinity and equivalencies of genetical relatedness in genealogy.

CONSANGUINITY (Kinship)			SHARED GENES
Lineal	Colineal	Ablineal
Self	Identical twin	--	1
Parents &	Siblings	--	1/2
children
Grandparents &	Uncles, nephews &	Double 1st	1/4
grandchildren	half-sibs	cousins
Great	Great uncles &	1st cousins	1/8
grandparents/	grand nephews
grandchildren
2nd great	Great grand	1st cousins	1/16
grandparents/	uncles & great	once removed
grandchildren	grand nephews
3rd great	2nd great grand	2nd cousins &	1/32
grandparents/	uncles/great	1st cousins
grandchildren	grand nephews	twice removed
4th great	3rd great grand	1st cousins	1/64
grandparents/	uncles/great	thrice removed &
grandchildren	grand nephews	2nd cousins
	once removed
5th great	4th great grand	3rd cousins &	1/128
grandparents/	uncles/great	2nd cousins
grandchildren	grand nephews	twice removed
6th great	5th great grand	2nd cousins	1/256
grandparents/	uncles/great	thrice removed &
grandchildren	grand nephews	3rd cousins
	once removed
7th great	6th great grand	4th cousins &	1/512
grandparents/	uncles/great	3rd cousins
grandchildren	grand nephews	twice removed
8th great	7th great grand	3rd cousins	1/1024
grandparents/	uncles/great	thrice removed
grandchildren	grand nephews

Table 3. Types of data, summaries and narratives involved in genealogical and family historical research.

Type of Form	Description
Data Forms
Family Group Sheets	Summarizes information on parents, grandparents and children by family
Individual Biography	Provides detailed information on individuals that goes beyond the basic vital rates including physical attributes (e.g. adult height), education, career and so forth.
Activities Sheet	Notes on family activities for a variety of time scales
Surname	Contains information on origin, derivation and etymology of surnames from both maternal and paternal sides
Summary Forms
Family Life Cycle	provides summary of age structure, generation time and major phases of family
Demographic Summary	provides demographic summary information on individuals and families
Ancestral Chart	Provides pair-wise branching scheme of 2 parents, 4 grandparts, 8 great grandparents and so forth; includes names and places of birth, death and marriage.
Pedigree Diagram	Schematic 'map' of consanguinal relationships for parent and offspring
Narratives
Personal Biographies	Biography on selected individuals
Family Biographies	Biography on selected families

Table 4. Family activities, events and routines on different time scales (1 life=100 years=400 seasons=1200 months=5218 weeks=36,521 days).

Occurence	Examples
REGULAR
Daily
Early Morning	Wake up time, breakfast, paper, chores, feed pets, exercise
Day	Work, school, housework, cooking, daytime meal, sports practice, music practice
Evening	Reading, TV, supper, bedtime, children activity, evening walks, study
Weekly
Week Day	Grocery shopping, music lessons, baking bread, sports
Weekend	Church, social gatherings, sports games, theater, music concerts
Monthly	Social gatherings, meetings, scouts, 4-H, school board, PTA)
Seasonally
Summer	Summer camp, tennis clinic, vacations, sailing
Fall	Resume school, football games, canning vegetables, start school
Winter	Skiing trips, debate club
Spring	Baseball, planting, school ends
Annually
Holidays (relig.)	Easter, Christmas, Jewish Holidays
Holidays (civil)	New Years, July 4th, Halloween, Thanksgiving
Anniversaries	Birthdays, wedding anniversaries
Medical	Medical, dental, orthodontist
Other	County fairs, tournaments, picnics, school plays, music recitals
IRREGULAR
Travel	Business trips, school trips, field trips, school abroad
Rites of Passage	Weddings, births, funerals, graduations, first communions, bar mitzvah (boys = 13), bat mitzvah (girls = 12)
Ceremonial	High recognition, Golden Anniversary
Tragic	Sudden death, fire, major accident or disease, catastrophies hurricanes, earthquakes

SUGGESTED READING

Atkins, John R. 1974. On the fundamental consanguineal numbers and their structural basis. American Ethnologist 1: 1-31.

Beardsley, T. 1996. Vital data. Scientific American March issue, pp. 100-105.

Bouchard, T. J. Jr. 1994. Genes, environment, and personality. Science 264:1700-1701.

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. and W. F. Bodmer. 1971. The Genetics of Human Populations. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.

de Breffny, Brian. 1982. Irish Family Names. Sackville Press, Ltd.

Faber, Bernard. 1971. Kinship and Class.

Filby, P. William (Ed.) 1981. Passenger and Immigration Lists Index. Vol. 1. Gale Research Company, Detroit.(Call No. CS68 P36)

Goodman, L. A., W. Keyfitz, and T. W. Pullum. 1974. Family formation and the frequency of various kinship relations. Theoretical Population Biology 5:1-27.

Grun, Bernard. 1979. The Timetables of History. Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York.

John Walter Woodbury, 248 University St., Salt Lake City, UT (801) 582-0563

Lasker, G. W. 1985. Surnames and genetic structure. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Levi-Strauss, Claude. 1969. The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Beacon Press, Boston.

Lineages, P.O. 417, Salt Lake City, UT 84110, Joni Cerny (owner), talked with Bruce Harmon (801) 531-9297

MacLysaght, Edward. 1969. The Surnames of Ireland. Barnes & Noble, Inc., New York.

Marlyn Twitchell, 4444 Immigration Trail, Salt Lake City, UT 84108

Moberg, Vilhelm. 1951. The Emigrants. Simon and Schuster, New York.

Moberg, Vilhelm. 1954. Unto a Good Land. Simon and Schuster, New York.

Morton, N. E., S. Yee, D. E. Harris and R. Lew. 1971. Bioassay of kinship. Theoretical Population Biology 2:507-524.

Pulgram, Ernst. 1954. Theory of Names. American Name Society. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Queen, S. A., R. W. Babenstein and J. S. Quadagno. 1985. The Family in Various Cultures. 5th Ed. Harper & Row, Publishers, New York (HQ503 Q4).

Roberts, D. F. and M. J. Roberts. 1983. Surnames and relationships: an Orkney study. Human Biology 55:341-347.

Schusky, E. L. 1965. Manual for Kinship Analysis. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.

Siebert, C. 1995. The DNA we've been dealt. New York Times Sunday Magazine, September 17.

Thernstrom, Stephen (Ed.) 1980. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

White, H. 1963. An Anatomy of Kinship. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.

Yasuda, N., L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, M. Skolnick and A. Moroni. 1974. The evolution of surnames: an analysis of their distribution and extinction. Theoretical Population Biology 5:123-142.

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