Most paleoanthropologists believe anatomically modern human beings evolved in Africa more than 100,000 years ago. However, until a recent finding in sub-Saharan Africa it was widely believed that the behavior of modern humans arose 40,000 years ago in Europe where humans were first able to make innovative tools, plan for the future and express themselves symbolically. This finding by a team of archeologists working in Zaire, discovered evidence of sophisticated behavior in sub-Saharan Africa perhaps 90,000 years ago. The evidence was in the form of tools with modern appearances including a carved bone harpoon tip with serrated edges. If the dates turn out to be correct, the findings will have profound implications for the evolution of human behavior (1995 Science, 268, 495).

New View of Human Evolution. Although most anthropologists believe that the human race originated in Africa, new measurements open the possibility that although its prehuman ancestors began in Africa, different variants of the primate genus Homo may have independently evolved in Africa, Europe and Asia. Until now, the oldest human remains in Asia were believed to be about 1 million years old. By comparison, the oldest human remains in Africa were estimated at about 1.8 million years old. Many anthropolocists believed that the age difference between the earliest African and earliest Asian Homo erectus fossils implied that the species got its start in Africa and then radiated much later to other continents. However, this theory has troubled some scientists. For example, Homo erectus in Africa devised what is known as the Acheulean tool kit, frequently found at sites in Africa but not in Asia. If Homo erectus developed in Africa, invented these useful tools and then set out to colonize Asia, why not take their tools along? If, on the other hand, separate branches of the Homo erectus tree evolved simultaneously in Africa and Asia, this problem would be explained: the founders of the Asian branch left home before their African cousins had invented Acheulean tools. This view is strengthened by the recent finding that skull fragments of Homo erectus found some time ago on the Indonesian island of Java are up to 1.8 million years old--as old as the oldest Homo erectus fossils ever found in Africa (Sacramento Bee, February 24, 1994).

Table 1. Geologic time scales (mya=million years ago).

ERA/PERIOD	mya	Events
Cenozoic	present-65
Quartenarya	present-2	Evolution of Homo
Tertiaryb	2-65	Flourishing of birds and mammals
Mesozoic	65-248
Cretaceous	65-144	Flowers, dinosaurs
Jurassic	144-213	Dominance of dinosaurs; bird origins
Triassic	213-248	Origin of mammals and dinosaurs
Paleozoic	248-590
{Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, Ordonician, Cambrian}		Evolution of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles
Precambrian	590-4,600	first cells, algae, oxygen atmosphere,

^aQuartenary is divided into two epochs: Recentpresent to 0.01 mya; and Pleistocine0.01-2 mya
^bTertiary is divided into three epochs: Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene, Eocene, and Paleocene

Table 2. Time scale for stone age man.

PERIOD	Years Ago	Events
Neolithic	present to 10,000	Flourishing of civilization
Mesolithic	10,000 to 12,000	Emergence of agriculture
Paleolithic	12,000 to 2 million	Stone tools

Evolution of farming

Note that Africa and Americas are north-south whereas Eurasia is east-west. Thus plants and animals can spread along axes where climates similar. Farming is not an invention or a discovery but rather the result of evolution. Hunter-gatherers pick the largest seeds and bring them back to camp. The discards or spilled seeds sprout and begin to grow next to camp. After several generations of this process the plants which produce the largest seeds are growing close the the camp or settlement which has evolved from a hunting camp to a farming commmunity.

World distribution of large-seeded grass species (wheat, rice, barley, mellet)

Region/zone	Number of species
West Asia/Mediterranean zone	33
East Asia	6
Sub-Saharan Africa	4
Americas	11
Australia	2
TOTAL	56

Traits for plant domestication:

Animal Domestication

The importance of domesticated mammals rests on surprisingly few species of big terrestrial herbivores. The "major five" include the following:

• Sheep (Central Asia)
• Goat (West Asia)
• Cow (Eurasia)
• Pig (Eurasia)
• Horse (S. Russia/Mongolia)

The minor species include (note that all are from Eurasia):

• Arabian and Bactrian (2-humped) camels (Arabia and Central Asia)
• Llama (Andes)
• Donkey (N. Africa)
• Reindeer (N. Europe)
• Water buffalo (SE Asia)
• Yak (Himilayas/Tibet)

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Domestication

1. Dietherbivores convert plants to meat; 10% conversion rate. 10,000 lbs corn to 1,000 lbs of cow; 100,000 lbs corn to 10,000 lbs herbivore to 1,000 lbs of carnivore; not eat dog; also should eat general plants and not specialized plants
2. Growth ratemust grow quickly; gorilla and elephants require 15 yrs; cows one year
3. Captive breedingelaborate courtships not good
4. Dispositiongrizzly bears eat owners; African buffalos nasty; zebras bite and hold on.
5. Calm and not panicgazelles and deer hurl themselves into fence
6. Social structureowner becomes alpha; lead dogs not cats

Origin of major infectious diseases of humans.

Human disease	Animal closely-related pathogen
Measles	Cattle
TB	Cattle
Small pox	Cattle
Flu	pigs/ducks
AIDS	Chimpanzees

What farming provides:

• High populationcentral authority, sedentary, bureacracy, specialists, resistance to diseases
• Writingtransmit information; record history
• Inventionsfull time craftsmen and specialists and full-time farmers; slaves

RACIAL STOCKS

Table 1. Five Main Racial Groups (after Boyd ):

Race	Description
European	includes variety of populations ranging from Lapps of Scandinavia to Mediterranean peoples of Southern Europe and North Africa
African	sub-Saharan African blacks
Asian	includes Mongoloid peoples and population of India-Pakistan subcontinent; some consider Indian as "extra-European caucasoid)
American	all aboriginal populations on American continents
Pacific/Australian	Melanesians, Polynesians and Australian aborigines

Classification. The divisions between blacks, whites, and the other major groups are arbitrary because each group shades into the others. All the human groups on Earth have mated with humans of every other groups they've encountered. Nevertheless, recognizing these major groups and calling them by these inexact names is a shorthand that makes it easier to understand history. By analogy, it is also useful to divide classical music into periods like "baroque," classical," and "romantic," even though each period is diverse and shades into other periods. (J. Diamond "How Africa Became Black" Discover Magazine, February, 1994)

Asian

• small groups in central Asia developed at end of last Ice Age developed through natural selection
• straight black hair and dark brown eyes
• skin color varies from light to medium brown
• beard and body hair meager
• nose not protrude and because the cheek bones on either side are broad and massive, the face appears flat
• adaptations to extreme cold; Asian fold in eye to protect from hard-driving snow, flatter face to resist frostbite; minimal facial hair since beards tend to ice up in extremely cold weather; cross sections of Asian hair have larger air spaces for insulation
• in most northern groups (Eskimos) more body fat to protect from cold. When Ice Age receded then Asians dispersed and carried their cold-adapted features with them

European

• not just European but part of Asia, India and most of north Africa
• the nose is the most distinctive feature that projects well forward of the eyes
• receding cheek bones produces a facial contour that is strongly contrasted with that of the Mongoloids
• also beard and body hair; skin color ranges from white in northern Europeans light brown is most common but very dark in some Caucasoids in India
• blue eyes better adapted to see in northern regions where dark much of the year
• longer noses help warm inhaled air and thicker body hair in men (these cold-adaptations were different than Asians who were adpated to the hard-driving, needle-like snow central Asia)
• much of Europe is forested winters are much like New England and also temperatures are not as low; sunlight produced paler skins to allow vitamin D synthesis.

Swords, guns, armies and politics. There are three basic life style types: hunter-gatherer, farmer, and nomad. In a farming society with its stored food surpluses and concentrated villages, people have a chance to specialize, to become full-time metal workers, soldiers, Kings and bureaucrats. Hence the farmers, and not the hunter-gatherers or the nomads, are the ones who develop swords and guns, standing armies, and political organizations (J. Diamond, Discover Magazine, Feb. 1994).

African

• Africa is associated with dark-skinned peoples in same way that Europe associated with Caucasoids
• But sub-Saharan Africans are typical race only of that part of Africa south of Egypt and the Sahara Desert
• dark brown to black skin, tightly curled hair, distinctive facial features with larger teeth and broader nose; darker skin protects from sun; tall and thin stature in desert cultures (Sudanese) help dissipate heat
• brown skin more in forested areas of western Africa; overall have morphological adaptations to high temperature, high levels of solar radiation and high humidity
• tightly coiled hair keeps off neck so facilitates cooling and evaporation.

American

• skin color about same range as Asian
• hair texture about same as Asian
• most notable difference is have prominent noses, more European than Asia

Australians

• skin color darker; often quite black
• hair frequently curly; beard and body hair abundant
• wider noses

Table 1. Races of humankind (modified from Goldsby, 1963, Coon et al. 1950 and Dobzhanski, 1963).

RACE	DISTRIBUTION
ASIA
North Chinese	northern and central China and Manchuria
Classic Mongoloid	Siberia, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan
Southeast Asian	South China, Thailand, Viet Nam, Burma, Indonesia
Tibetan	Tibet
Ainu	aboriginal population of northern Japan
Turkic	western China, Turkestan
EUROPE
Northwest European	Scandanavia, N. German, Netherlands, United Kingdom
Northeast European	Poland, Russia, most of Siberia
Mediterranean	peoples from both sides of Mediterranean from Tangiers to the Dardanelles, including Arabia, Turkey, Iran
Alpine	France, S. Germany, Switzerland, N. Italy, Balkans
Lapp	arctic Scandinavia and Finland
AMERICAS
North American Black	new breeding population resulting from an African Black-European hybridization
South American Black	significant fraction of Brazilian population with mixture of European, African Black and South American Indian
North American Indian	indigenous populations of Canada and the U.S.
Central American Indian	from southwestern U.S. through Central America to Bolivia
South American Indian	primarily agricultural peoples of Peru, Bolivia and Chile
Eskimo	arctic America
Latino	emerging population of Mexico, Central and South America
AFRICA
South African Black	breeding population resulting from Black-European hybridization; analogous to North American black
West African Black	West African and much of Congo
East African Black	Kenya, Tanzania, parts of Sudan and Ethiopia
Bushmen and Hottentot	aboriginal inhabitants of South Africa
Forest Pigmy	rain forests of equatorial Africa
Sudanese	most of the Sudan
Bantu	Mozambique, Angola, parts of Union of South Africa and lower East Africa
INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
Hindu	People of Pakistan and northern India
Dravidian	People of southern India and Sri Lanka
Vedda	Aboriginal population of Sri Lanka
AUSTRALIA
Carpentarian	aboriginal population of northern and central Australia
Tasmanian	aboriginal population of Tasmania
PACIFIC
Melanesian	Pacific islands from New Guinea to Fiji
Micronesian	islands of the western Pacific
Polynesian	islands of the central and eastern Pacific, notably Hawaii
Negrito	Philippines to New Guinea

AFRICA

1. West African Black.
   1. Live in coastal forests from Senegal to Bight of Biafra.
   2. Tend to be brown rather than black
   3. provided most of blacks to New World; voyage from Europe to coast of Africa across to Brazil, Caribbean and east coast of U.S.

   Timbuktu--Fabled City of Africa. Located near the bend of the Niger River in the country of Mali in Northwestern Africa, Timbuktu dates back to prehistory when it was a stop-over for caravans trading in gold, salt and slaves travelling from sub-Saharan Africa such as Benin or the Ivory Coast to points north such as Morocco, Tunis or Tripoli. The savannah meets the desert in this region so the trans-Saharan camel caravans would transfer their cargo to donkey caravans.

2. East African Black
   1. Horn of Africa
   2. Includes various subgroups including the Masai;
   3. consists of lakes and highland tribes and covers Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique
   4. many agriculturalists but also hunter gatherers, include the Nilotes (due to provenance in Nile region) are cattle-owning people
   5. Arab influence on coast broach influence of Islam

3. Bushmen and Hottentot
   1. Bushmen are the desert hunters
   2. short (5 ft), skin yellow brown, wrinkled; broad nose contrast with thin lips, pointed chin
   3. they are the hunter/gatherers of the Kalahari Desert
   4. Hottentots are less short (5.5 ft)
   5. shometimes large buttocks in women
   6. differ from the Bushmen as are pastorals that herd cattle.

4. Forest Pygmy
   1. The pygmies are short 4 ft. 6 in., people of the forest who live by hunting and gathering
   2. close to Bushmen blood groups but live in forest
   3. speak both Sudanic and Bantu languages
   4. the only people who are not afraid of forest; Some people feel that pygmies are the original and unique population of Africa and that West African
   5. blacks who surround them are a mixture of very long standing of pygmy and Caucasian
   6. pygmies and bushmen may be ecological races of single basic stock.

5. Sudanese
   1. Inhabit hot and dry savanna region between forest belt and Sahara desert
   2. tall, strongly built and black skinned
   3. curly as distinct from frizzy hair

6. Bantu
   1. descendents of people who emerged from equatorial rain forests of Central Africa
   2. actually a mixture of Hamitic, nigrillo and Bushmen types
   3. united by Bantu language.

7. South African Black
   1. called "Cape Coloreds"
   2. descended from union of Dutch and Huguenot settlers with indigenous Hottentots and to lesser extent the Bantu and Malay
   3. these rank just below whites in social hierarchy

INDIA

Three major racial divisions:

1. Europoid of north and of large parts of peninsular India
2. Mongoloid race near Himilayan regions
3. Tribal populations in Middle and southern parts dwell in veddoid or proto-australoid

• Vedda represent one of the most archaic sections of humanity; link oldest surviving racial stratum of India with Australian aborigines
• People of some parts of southern India resemble those of European have a dark skin color seen elsewhere only in blacks.

1. Vedda
   1. Semi-nomadic tribe inhabiting forests of highlands of central Sri Lanka
   2. remnants of primitive racial stratum which extended over pre-historic times all over south and South East Asia
   3. small in stature with dark brown skin and curly or wavy hair; broad faces, flat noses, deeply set eyes, full lips, weak receding chins
   4. live in caves use stone implements arrow points, flakes and scrapers; no concept of trapping or fishing except poisoned water
   5. similar to Ainu of Japan.

2. Dravidians
   1. Spread into India well before Indo-Aryans appeared
   2. pushed into southern India, major group is the Tamil
   3. physical features vary from small, dark and black-African looking to tall Aryan-looking
   4. The Tamil are primarily in Sri Lanka and have a strict caste system from Brahmin to untouchables.

3. Hindus
   1. Hindus are a people first and a religion second
   2. the word Hindu is primarily a social term; best described by a process of elimination--inhabitant of India, practices Hinduism as religion, must be born a Hindu cannot achieve it (no converts).
   3. The classical definition is one who adheres to four broad classes or varnas.
   4. At the top are the Brahmin (learned)
   5. followed by the Kshatriyas (warrior)
   6. Traders and merchants
   7. Laborers, servants and others who have low social status but are still in the system)
   8. Four stages within each class including student, householder, forest dweller and ascetic.
   9. Under them all are the outcastes who are outside of the system and therefore are "untouchable". They do the lowliest of jobs such as latrine cleaning
   10. up to 75% of India's people are Sudras or outcastes
   11. The Hindus are descended from a variety of races including: aboriginals, Dravidians, Aryans, Mongols and Semites.

PACIFIC REGION

• Almost no link between a certain physical trait and a place of origin; Peru, north-west America, southeast Asia, Japan, India and even China have all been cited as having cultural affinities with Polynesia.
• Apparently no longer disputed that Peruvians sailed and drifted to Easter Island
• most probably route of migration of first Pacific peoples is from Indonesia
• sweet potato is native to South America but is common in Polynesia.

1. Melanesian
   1. Includes Fiji and includes islands northeast of Australia
   2. darker skinned and heavier than other two broad groups; comes from mixed Papauan and immigrant stocks; southeast New Guinea to Fiji Islands and south to New Calendonia
   3. short 5 to 5 1/2 ft; heads long, broad noses; skin from dark coffee to light brown; hair frizzy to wavy
   4. Prevailing wisdom was that Melanesians came from one or two migrations out of Asia within the last 10,000 years
   5. yet the poeple of the island of Malaita had blond Afros, while the highland people of nearby Bougainville had wiry hair and jet-black skin like West Africans
   6. however, movements may have been ancient and diverse. A growing body of evidence suggests these islands (The Solomon Islands) could be one of the first, not last, parts of the world to be settled by modern humans (Science, 268, 265, 1995).

1. most of Micronesian islands are north of the equator; most are small (micro) coral atoll formations and include the Caroline, Marianna, Marshall and Gilbert islands
2. physically heterogeneious and tend to be smaller than the Polynesians who are often massive;

1. these islands cover a greater area than other two main Pacific groups
2. form triangle from New Zealand to Hawaii to Easter Island
3. includes Tahiti, Bali, Bora Bora, Samoa; some are relatively light skinned and almost caucasian features; others (eg. Tahiti) are darker-skinned and mongoloid in appearance
4. the island Mas a Tierra is the island of Robinson Crusoe which is about 500 miles west of Chile
5. island is about 35 square miles; written by the Scot Alexander Selkirk who lived on island for four years starting in 1704; believed to originate from India by way of Indonesia though evidence that admixture from South America;
6. heavy and broad faces with high forehead, large straight nose, full defined lips, rounded jaw-line; black eyes--sometimes with a slanting Mongoloid appearance; wavy hair.

1. May be one of remnants of Australoid peoples similar to Ainu, Vedda and Aborigines
2. Austro-asiatic or Negrito stock which is related to pygmy
3. only a few thousand left; the first people to reach this area were migrant peoples of the prehistoric period from the Asian land mass
4. the negrito descendants of these aborigine migrants live isolated in the mountains of eastern and western Luzon and in the north-east Mindanao of Phillipines
5. hunt small game with bows and arrows and blowpipes.

AUSTRALIA

1. Carpentarian
   1. traditionally hunters/gatherers
   2. believed to have migrated from India, Malaya and New Guinea via Cape York peninsula
   3. long narrow skulls, deep set eyes, wide nostils
   4. hair way to frizzy
   5. around 100,000 survive

2. Tasmania
   1. Tasmania was joined to mainland until 11,000 years ago but separation forced people to remain in the Stone Age
   2. average height was 5 ft 4 in
   3. 1876 the last full-blooded Tasmanian died; when first discovered dubbed "representative of Paleolithic men" and were denied their humanity
   4. never advanced further than chipping and flaking stone implements
   5. could not draw, no mythology, canoes were bundles of bark tied together; obtained fire by rubbing sticks rather than "groove" method.

ASIA

1. Classic Mongoloid
   1. Siberia, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan
   2. Japanese thought to have come to Japan from Korea driving the aboriginal peoples out
   3. language remains a mystery since close affinities to Polynesian, Turkish and Finnish languages
   4. Koreans--Chinese cultural influences seeped down from north and distinctive, fairly homogenous Korean national culture developed
   5. Mongolians--stepps are huge spaces that lie between great mountain chains; Mongolia is vast plateau covering 600,000 square miles with Gobi Desert in south
   6. Ghenghis Khan in 12th century united hundreds of tribes into one vast empire from Europe to Korea.

2. North Chinese
   1. northern and central China and Manchuria
   2. China is the heartland of the mongoloid people; thought to have evolved there over a million years ago
   3. around 94% of the Chinese population are Han peoples; Manchurians are separate group in northern China.

3. Southeast Asian
   1. South China, Thailand, Viet Nam, Burma, Indonesia, Cambodia
   2. where to draw the line between Southeast Asian and Pacific peoples is not clear cut especially between Indonesia and the Phillipines
   3. Filipinos are now a distinctive race with an admixture of Chinese, Spanish and American (another mixture) blood
   4. Indonesians are a mixture of Malay, Melanesian and Papuan with over 300 ethnic groups and 250 languages
   5. Indonesia includes Bali, Sumatra, west Borneo, Java; the Cambodians are the most australoid-looking people in Southeast Asia while the Burmese are the most mongoloid looking.

4. Tibetan
   1. includes peoples of himalayan kingdoms of Sikkim, Tibet and Bhutan
   2. Tibetans live in high Tibetan plateau of Himilayas
   3. most have black hair and dark brown skins
   4. people of Tibet live on the highest extensive tract of land in the world, on a plateau more than 10,000 feet above sea level
   5. farmers and nomads; origins of the Tebetans, who are a racially diverse people is a mystery; look much like the ancient mongols.

5. Ainu
   1. aboriginal people of Japan
   2. main habitat is island of Hokkaido which is northernmost of the large Japanese islands
   3. hairiness is Ainu's outstanding physical characteristic;
   4. skilled carvers; women tatoo mouth when available for marriage
   5. distinctly non-Mongoloid but rather a heavy-featured Caucasoid.

6. Turkic
   1. Includes Turkey, Eiran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq and Soviet Central Asia
   2. Caucasoid similar to Europeans from Greece to France; light brown skins and black or dark brown hair
   3. lots of body hair, large curly beards and bushy eyebrows that meet in tuft in middle
   4. lightest skins on Aegean coast of Turkey.

Fig. 2. Plants and animals spread quickly and easily within a climate zone to which they are already adapted. To spread out of this zone they have to develop new varieties with different climate tolerances (from Diamond 1992).

EUROPE

Europe contains chains of mountains that have historically acted as boundaries of human activity.

1. Northwest European
   1. Scandanavia, N. German, Netherlands, Great Britain, Ireland; Celtic=Irish, Betons, Welsh, Highland Scots; Nordic=Scandinavian, Germainic=Teutonic=all north European people from German, Scandinavian and English; Angles, Saxons and Jutes=Germanic people of that settle in England in fifth century; British Isles: Barrier is English Channel
   2. United Kingdom: includes England, Scotland (mtns separating from England), Wales, Northern Ireland (across Irish Sea; is political remnant of English domination of Ireland); and ii)Ireland;
   3. Located in transitional environment between maritime Britain, Arctic north, mountains of central Europe and Mediterranean south; includes France, western Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxembourg;
   4. France--Alp barrier to east and Pyrenees;
   5. Brittany--vestigial Celtic culture hearth part of France
   6. Germany--two physical environments i)northern plains; and ii)mountainous south;
   7. Benlux Countries: i)The Netherlands--sits astride two great rivers the Maas and the Rhine; and ii)Belgium--unites two diverse populations the Flemings (speak Flemish) and the Walloons (speak French);
   8. northern Europe----barrier is North Sea; includes Norway, Sweden, Denmark Finland and Iceland (island which is outpost of Norse exploration in Atlantic); Scandanavian Peninsula: Norway and Sweden.

2. Northeast European
   1. Includes the Slavic and Baltic speaking peoples of eastern Europe from Latvia to Bulgaria;
   2. includes the Ashkenazim (northern group of Jews), Cossacks Czechs, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Mordvins, Poles, Russians, Slavs, Tatars, Ukrainians, Albanians, Bugars, Greeks, Macedonians, Rumanians Serbo-Croats and Slovenes

3. Mediterranean
   1. peoples from both sides of Mediterranean from Tangiers to the Dardanelles, including Arabia, Turkey and Iran;
   2. Arabs--originally name of Semitic inhabitants of the Arabian peninsula; word "Arab" today means generally all persons whose native language is Arabic and who share a common culture and heritage includes Egypt, Sudan, Morocco, Algiers, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen, Tunisia, Lebanon, Jordan, Libya and Kuwait;
   3. The Trucial Coast (now Union of Arab Emirates)--desert tribes, includes Abu Dhabi
   4. Iraq--Marsh Arabs; Saudi Arabia--the Empty Quarter--last explored part of the earth because nothing there
   5. Iberians--Spanish and Portuguese; theis group includes Andalusians, Basques (extremely old subgroup in Spain and France), Catalans (NE Spain), Gibraltarians, Portuguese, Sephardic Jews (Spain), Balearic Islanders, Corsicans (French island north of Sardinia), Cypriots and Greeks, Maltese, Oscans (southern Italy), Sardinieans, Savoyards (French and Italian mountains), Scicilians (between Italy and Africa);
   6. Berbers and Moors found in Morocco
   7. Barriers include Pyrenees and Alps; includes Portugal, Spain, Italy and Greece;
   8. successesive layers of civilizations include Phoenicians, Minoans, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Arab and Modern.

4. Alpine
   1. located in Alps which are the backbone of Europe including Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Yugoslavia; includes the Tyrolese who live in the mountainous Austrian Tyrol;
   2. close to the Alpine Swiss; typically live in alpine community with a large central village and a number of hamlets;
   3. Switzerland and Austria are landlocked nations formed by high mountains that separate Continental and Mediterranean Europe
   4. Austria vestige of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (southern Germans), framed by Danube Valley and Alps
   5. Switzerland is multinational state, neutral; speak four languages (German, Italian, French and Romansk--like Latin); Swiss lowlands.

5. Lapp
   1. Arctic Scandinavia and Finland
   2. reindeer nomads related to Finnish but extremely old culture that has remained isolated
   3. the Eskimos are more of the sea culture whereas the Lapps are the inland culture
   4. Lapps are 20 to 50% Siberian and 50 to 80% European (Scandinavian).

AMERICAS

• First humans to reach North America arrived some time between 70,000 and 12,000 years ago
• At the coldest intervals between those dates, sea shrinkage exposed a broad land bridge, Beringia, now drowned beneath the Bering Strait. Hunter gatherers probably walked from Siberia to Alaska. Moving south through one of two ice-free routes, they fanned out across the Great Plains, then penetrated southward.
• Anthropologists believed these were the so-called Paleo-Indians who had straight black hair, coppery skin, dark eyes, broad cheekbones, and shovel shaped incisor teeth.
• Such Mongoloid features occur in American Indians alive today
• there is a "sameness" about the physical appearance of most New World populations--pigmentation, eye color, hair color, hair form, beard and body hair sparse
• May have been a relatively small band that founded all of the Americas starting at the Bering Strait

Domesticating Animals By around 4000 BC west Eurasia had its "Big Five" domestic livestock--sheep, goats, pigs, cows, and horses (East Asians domesticated four other cattle species--yaks, water buffalo, gaur, and banteng). These animals provided food, power, clothing and military advantage (i.e. horses). Why didn't American Indians reap similar benefits by domesticating the corresponding native American mammal species: mountain sheep, goats, peccaries, bison, and tapirs? Or Australians mount kangaroos to invade Eurasia? The answer is that only a tiny fraction of the world's wild mammal species have been domesticated. There are three crucial characteristics of animals required to domesticate: i)social species so that the herd's subordinate individuals have submissive behavior towards dominant individuals; ii)cannot be nervous such as deer and antelope; and iii)must be able to breed in captivity (from Diamond 1992).

1. North American Indian
   1. The Indians may have been more like earlier Mongoloids than present day Mongoloids
   2. main groups include: Blackfoot (Indians of forest in Canada), California Indians, Cherokee (Appalachia), Cheyenne (plains Indians in Dakotas/Wyoming), Chipewyan (Subarctic in Northwest Territories of Canada), Cree (subarctic group), Great Basin Indians, Iroquois Confederation (North-eastern Indians lived in villages along streams/lakes and raised crops of sweet corn, benas, squash), Ojibway (subarctic), Pawnee (Plains Indian in Nebraska etc), Shoshone (Great Basin), Hopi (southwest such as Arizona), Navaho (south west).

2. Central American Indian
   1. At least 90% of people in Central America are mestizos: descendants of unions between Spanish and Indians
   2. today Indians represent only about 8% of population
   3. the face of Central American Indian is less flat than that of the east Asian mongoloid
   4. he has a more prominent nose; and his skin pigmentation is darker; slender inbuild with dark eyes and a noticeable lack of body hair
   5. stands between 5 ft 2 in and 5 ft 6 in although some groups qualify as pygmies.
   6. About 3.5 million Indians in Mexico and Central America.
   
   

   Ethnic Trump. That my son, Luke, goes to Chinese-culture school seems inevitable to most people, even though his father is of Irish descent. For certain ethnicities trump others; Chinese, for example, trumps Irish. This has to do with the relative distance of certain cultures from mainstream American culture, but it also has to do with race. For as we all know, it is not only certain ethnicities that trump others but certain colors: black trumps white, for example, always and forever; a mulatto is not a kind of white person, but a kind of black person. (from Gish Jen, New York Times Magazine, July 7, 1996).

3. South American Indian
   1. Two massive geographical influences--Amazonian system (lowlands) and Andes (highlands). Portugal took possession of Brazil.
   2. All European powers had the disadvantage to contend with that in this region there were no united Indian empires there for the taking. Each tribe was an autonomous political unit and each had to be pacified, subjugated or treated separately. Many tribes still practice scalping, head hunting and head-shrinking.
   3. People of highland tend to be either Spanish, mestizo or Indian (not African).
   4. mestizos is mix of the fire of the Spaniards and the tenacity and craftmanship of the Andean Indian
   5. Main Indian settlements in Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador
   6. at height the Inca Empire stretched from the south of Colombia to central Chile--a distance greater than the width of the entire U.S.

4. South American Black
   1. Cross between Indian, African and Spanish
   2. range over much of South America; descended from the four million or so slaves who were transported into South America to work on sugar plantations; one of the most striking aspects of the Afro-Brazilian culture are the religious cults, such as macumba; from this African class that Carnaval, the pre-Lenten feast, derives its spontaneity.

5. Eskimo
   1. More like modern Asian than any of the other New World races because they possess blood type B as do present day Asians but this blood type is not present in Indians of Americas
   2. feel migration only 6,000 years ago; their way of life is to hunt large sea mammals and have seagoing boats for hunting and travel; would not have need Bering Strait bridge to cross over
   3. Eskimos were part of interior plains up to 300 years ago
   4. then Cree Indians obtained guns and forced back to northerly fringes; Eskimos not warriors; polar Eskimos most northerly peoples
   
   

   Black. Despite increasing use of the term African-American, most black Americans still prefer to be called black, according to a survey conducted in 1991 by the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, a black-oriented study group. It found 72% said they preferred black. The change from black to African American was first proposed in 1988 at a meeting in Chicago to lay the groundwork for the African-American Summit. Jesse Jackson, New York Mayor David Dinkins and other prominent blacks embraced the change. Blacks with some college education were more likely to favor the new term than those who had not gone beyond high school (Associated Press, Davis Enterprise, January 28, 1991).

6. North American Black
   1. Slaves were in Haiti as early as 1501
   2. around 10 million blacks arrived in western hemisphere; 60% in 19th century destined for sugar plantations of Brazil and Caribbean
   3. majority of slaves bound for North American arrived during span of 70 years from 1741 to 1810
   4. 1865 abolition of slavery
   5. first generation to live in freedom in U.S. were 3rd and 4th generation natives of the U.S.; most bound to British North America appear to come from narrow strip of west Africa coast: 50% from Angola and southern Nigeria; 1/8th each from Ghana, Senegal, Gambia and Sierra Leone; some from Benin, Biafra and Mozambique
   6. during slavery many children were born to black mothers and white fathers. Second generation were 1/4 black and third generation was 1/8 black. Most individuals that were 3/4 or more white ancestry could "pass for white" and thus, could join white community and bestow genes upon it (Brues, 1977). North American blacks are 50% European in the north and 10% European in the south
   7. blacks will be indistinguishable from whites in 1000 years if rates of inbreeding continued as over last 300 years.
   
   

7. Latino
   1. Latin America consists of i)Middle America (Mexico, Caribbean, Central America and Antilles) and ii)South America
   2. when Spaniard conquered Mexico and Central America in the early 16th Century there were two great civilizations--Aztecs and Maya
   3. However, for every 10 men who came from Spain there was only one woman. Thus a Spanish/Indian population started including concubines and wives. South America, Central America, Mexico and West Indies are commonly known as Latin America.
   4. Hispanic derived from Latin Hispanicus. Hispania was the name of the Roman province of the Iberian Peninsula in Lusitania. Thus refers to both Spanish and Portuguese.

SUGGESTED READING

Brooks, A. S. et al. 1995. Dating and context of three middle stone age sites with bone points in the upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268:548-553.

Brues, Alice. 1977. People and Races. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York.

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. and W. F. Bodmer. 1971. The Genetics of Human Populations. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.

Diamond, J. 1992. The Third Chimpanzee. Harper Perennial, New York.

Diamond, J. 1994. How Africa Became Black" Discover Magazine, February issue.

Gibbons, A. 1995. Old dates for modern behavior. Science 268: 495-496.

Hrdy, S. The Woman That Never Evolved. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Roosevelt, A. C. et al. 1996. Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: the peopling of the americas. Science 272:373-384.

Shreeve, J. 1996. Sunset on the savanna. Discover Magazine 17:117-125. (July, 1996 issue).

Thernstrom, Stephen (Ed.) 1980. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Tishkoff, S. A., et al. 1996. Global patterns of linkage disequilibrium at the CD4 locus and modern human origins. Science 271:1380-1387.

Yellen, J. E. et al. 1995. A middle stone age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268:553-556.

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